Study Author | Study Design | Study Population | Physical Activity measure (type, level) | Outcome measures of balance | Main Finding | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N, Age (mean & range) % female, race, ethnicity, height (m), weight (kg), BMI, education, country, setting, consent | More active (MA) V less active (LA) | Measure, Duration, Intensity | Neuromuscular (Gait (G); Strength (S); Functionality (FU); Flexibility (FL) | Cognitive | Sensory | Other | |||
Observational Studies: | |||||||||
Aoyagi et al., 2009 [47] | Prospective cohort 1 year Recruitment: Nakanojo study Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: declared | N: 170 Age: 72.6 ± 4.6 yrs (65-84 yrs) 55% women Height(m): 1.53 ± 0.08 Weight(kg): 54.3 ± 8.6 BMI: 23.3 ± 3.3 Japan Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: 65-74 yr group LA group: 75-84 yr group | Accelerometer MA group: 7190 ± 2491 steps per day LA group: 5482 ± 2829 steps per day | Indirect measure - (G) Walking speed (preferred & maximal) (5 m) (velocity - m/s) - (S) Handgrip test (dynamometer) (force - n) - (S) Isometric knee extension (dynamometer) (torque – N*m/kg) - (FL) Functional reach test (distance - m) Direct measure Static balance test: Total body stability (eyes open/closed) (sway distance - m) | n/a | n/a | n/a | Measures of physical fitness except handgrip and total body sway were greater for MA group (65-74 yr). |
Brooke-Wavell & Cooling, 2008 [50] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: local bowls clubs; media & friends & family) Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 74 Age: 68.3 ± 4.65 yrs (60-75 yrs) 100% women Weight(kg): 69.2 ± 10.1 BMI(kg/m2): 26.95 ± 3.9 Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Bowlers LA group: non-bowlers | MA group: 2–3+ hours of PA per week LA group: less than 3 h PA per week | Indirect measure (S) Isometric knee & hip extension (scat & force meter) (force - n) (S) BUA of the calcaneus (Osteometer) (dB/MHz) (FL) TUG (3 m) (time - s) (FL) Range of Motion: shoulder & ankle (goniometer) (degrees°) Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability (eyes open/closed (distance - mm) | Reaction time (s) | n/a | Falls | MA group had significantly better postural stability, muscle strength, and flexibility. |
Buatois et al., 2007 [51] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: cohort from a larger study on fall prevention Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: declared | N: 130 Age: 70.3 ± 4.3 yrs 41% women BMI(kg/m2): 26.28 ± 3.75 Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: PA -walking, cycling, swimming, gymnastics; PA experience: 28 ± 9.5 yrs LA group: no PA | MA group: 1–2 h per week LA group: no PA | Direct measure Sensory Organisation Test (equilibrium scores and composite score) | n/a | n/a | n/a | Sensory conflicting conditions were more challenging for LA group who swayed more and frequently lost balance than MA group. |
Dewhurst et al., 2014 [69] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: n/k Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 60 Mean age: 69.36 ± 2.9 yrs (60-80 yrs) 100% women Height(m): 1.58 ± 0.07 Weight(kg): 64.05 ± 8.15 BMI(kg/m2): 25.95 ± 3.9 Waist(cm):82.45 ± 9.08 Hip (cm): 102.6 ± 7.62 Waist/hip ratio: 0.80 ± 0.2 Scotland Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Dancers LA group: Non-dancers | RAPA MA group: 2.5 h hours of PA per week 10 yrs Scottish dance experience LA group: 2.5 h PA per week (no dancing) | Indirect measure (G) Walking speed (preferred/maximum) (6 m) (speed - s) (FL) Timed Up & Go (2.44 m) (time to complete - s) (FL) Range of motion: Chair sit & reach test (distance - cm) (FL) Range of motion: Back scratch test (left/right shoulder) (distance - cm) Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability (sway area -cm2) | n/a | n/a | n/a | No differences in measures of flexibility between groups. Better results for MA group on measures of TUG, walking and sway. |
Fong & Ng, 2006 [52] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: n/k Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 48 Age: 55.4 ± 11.5 yrs 50% women Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: tai chi LA group: no tai chi | MA group: 3-6 h per week 1-3 yrs tai chi experience LA group: no tai chi | Indirect measure (FL) Knee repositioning (electrogoniometer) (°degrees; absolute error) Direct measure Tilt board (balance time - s) | Reaction time (electromyography) (ms) | Knee angle repositioning | n/a | MA group had better reaction times, knee joint positioning, and dynamic standing balance measures than LA group. |
Fong et al., 2014 [53] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: martial arts and elderly centres Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 84 Age: 64.39 ± 11.9 yrs 44% women Weight(Kg): 63.2 ± 11.8 Height(m): 1.60 ± 0.09 BMI(kg/m2): 49.3 ± 3.65 Falls: 0.1 ± 0.35 Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: martial arts LA group: no martial arts | MA group: 2 h per week of martial arts Experience: 8 ± 9.9 yrs LA group: no martial arts | Direct measure (S) Bone ultrasound: arm (SOS T & Z scores) Indirect measure (FU) Five times sit to stand (time to complete s) (FU) Berg Balance Scale (14 items) (max score 56) | ABC (16 items) | n/a | n/a | MA had better bone strength, lower limb muscular strength and better functional balance than LA group. |
Gao et al., 2011 [48] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: local golf clubs, community centres Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding: declared | N: 23 Age: 68.75 ± 6.7 yrs (60-80 yrs) 0% women Height(m): 1.6 ± 0.06 China Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Golfers LA group: Non-golfers | MLTPAQ MA group: Light =6 Mod. =4 Heavy =1 LA group: Light =10 Mod. = 2 Heavy =0 | Indirect measure (FL) Functional reach test (forward) (functional reach normalised with body height - %) Direct measure Sensory Organisation Test (somatosensory, visual and vestibular ratios) | MMSE (30 items) ABC (mod.)(16 items) | n/a | n/a | MA group had better balance control, reach, postural control, visual & vestibular inputs. No significant difference between somatosensory ratios between groups. |
Gauchard et al., 1999 [54] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: cohort involved in a study of ageing Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 40 Age: 72.7 ± 6.5 yrs 70% women Community setting Informed consent | MA group: yoga & soft gymnastics LA group: walking | MA group: 90mins per week LA group: 5 km per week | Indirect measure (S) Knee & ankle extension/flexion, dynamometer (power - Nm/s; strength - Nm) Direct measure Dynamic balance test AP stability (eyes open/closed) (foot displacement - FFT; strategy type - Type 1, 2, & 3) | n/a | n/a | n/a | Regular PA improves measures of strength and postural control. |
Gauchard et al., 2001 [55] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: cohort involved in a study of ageing Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 36 Age: 72.9 ± 6.5 yrs 72% women Community setting Informed consent | MA group: yoga & soft gymnastics LA group: walking | MA group: 90mins per week and 5 km walking per week LA group: 5 km per week | Direct measure Static balance test AP (eyes open/closed) (EC/EO ratio) Dynamic balance test AP stability (eyes open/closed) (component velocities of nystagmus -left, right, total R-MSCV; L-MSCV; T-MSCV; strategy type Type 1, 2, 3) | n/a | Vestibular tests (caloric/rotational-vestibular reflectivity) | n/a | Inactivity causes poor balance, vestibular hypo excitability and dependency on visual afferent. PA such as yoga improves dynamic postural control. |
Gauchard et al., 2003 [56] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: cohort study of age-related physiology Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 44 Median age: 73.33 yrs (63-85 yrs) 100% women Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: yoga & soft gymnastics LA group: no PA: walking | MA group: 90 mins per week LA group: n/k | Direct measures Static balance test Total body stability (sway distance - m; sway area -cm2) AP & ML stability (eyes open/closed) (sway distance - m; sway area - cm°; ratio - EO/EC) | n/a | n/a | n/a | Regular PA increases postural control in older adults. Proprioceptive PA like yoga is more successful in improving static balance. |
Gaudagnin et al., 2015 [71] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: n/k Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding declared | N: 24 Age: 67.5 ± 5.5 yrs 100% women Height(m): 1.54 ± 0.06 Weight(Kg): 65.5 ± 10.5 Brazil Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: PA LA group: no regular PA | MA group: at least 150mins per week LA group: no PA | Indirect measure (G) Walking speed (preferred) (8 m) (velocity - m/s) | n/a | n/a | n/a | Active lifestyle improves gait speed. |
Gyllensten et al., 2010 [64] | Cross sectional 1 timepoint Recruitment: community centres Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding: N/k | N: 44 Age: 69.9 ± 6.85 yrs 82% women Weight(k) 154.8 ± 6.95 Height(m): 1.55 ± 6.95 Hong Kong, China Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Tai chi LA group: Non-tai chi | MLTPAQ MA group: Light =4 Mod. =17 Heavy =3 LA group: Light =7 Mod. =12 Heavy =1 | Indirect measure (FU) Body Awareness Scale- Healthy (BAS-H) (25 items) (FU) Single Leg Jump Test (yes/no; s) Direct measure Dynamic balance test Limits of Stability (movement velocity - °/sec; endpoint excursion - %; maximum excursion - %; directional control - %) | MMSE (mod.) (30 items) | n/a | n/a | MA group had better stability limits, increased ability to perform a single leg stance, more stability on landing on one leg, and better body awareness. |
Hakim et al., 2004 [70] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: local tai chi clubs/senior centres Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 94 Age: 75.2 ± 7.5 yrs (60-96 yrs) 84% women 87% 1 or more chronic conditions 88% independent ambulation Pennsylvania; US Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Tai chi LA group: No exercise | MA group: 62.5% walk regularly and 100% take a tai chi class 1 or more times per week tai chi experience: mean 5.6 yrs LA group: no tai chi and no walking | Indirect measure (FU) Timed Up & Go (3 m) (time to complete - s) (FU) Chair stand test (30s) (number of full stands) (FL): Multidirectional reach test (distance - inches) | ABC (16 items) | n/a | n/a | MA group have better balance performance, confidence, and multidirectional reach results |
Hakim et al., 2010 [57] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: local tai chi/senior centres Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding: N/k | N: 52 Age: 74.46 ± 5.09 yrs 87% women Marital status: Single = 17%; Married = 30%; Divorced = 11% Widowed = 42% 17% comorbidities 37% fall history Community setting Informed consent | MA group: Tai chi LA group: No exercise | MA: 11.66 ± 5.15 (days/month) LA group: 10.73 ± 9.52 (days/month) | Indirect measure (FU) Fullerton Advanced Balance Scale (FAB) (10 items) (FU) Time Floor Transfer test (time to complete - s) (FU) Single leg stance (30s) (balance time - s) (FL) Multidirectional reach test (distance - inches) | ABC (16 items) | n/a | n/a | MA group have better balance performance scores on FAB and multidirectional reach test. No significant differences found on ABC, single leg stance, and Timed floor transfer test between groups |
Lu et al., 2013 [65] | Cross sectional 1 timepoint Recruitment: local tai chi clubs/ elderly centres Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding declared | N: 58 Age: 73.5 ± 5.15 yrs 72% women Height(m): 1.54 ± 0.80 Weight(kg): 56.95 ± 9.1 Hong Kong, China Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Tai chi LA group: Non-tai chi | MA group: Light = 4 Mod. =23 Heavy = 1 Minimum of 1.5 h per week tai chi Tai chi experience: 6.7 ± 4.6 yrs LA group: No tai chi: Light = 5 Mod. =25 Heavy = 0 | Direct measures Static balance test Total body sway (dual and single task) (sway distance - mm; sway area - cm2) | MMSE(30 items) Auditory Stroop test (reaction time (s); error rate (%) |  | n/a | MA group performed better in both stepping down and Stroop tests and so have better postural control and cognitive performance whether there is a single or dual task situation. |
Perrin et al., 1999 [72] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: cohort study of ageing Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding: N/k | N: 65 Age: 71.8 s ± 0.8 yrs 66% women France Community setting | MA group: either walking, swimming, cycling, tennis LA group: no PA | MA group: n/k LA group: no PA | Direct measure Static balance test: Total body stability (eyes open/closed) (sway velocity - cm/s; sway area - cm2) AP/ML stability (eyes open/closed) (sway velocity -cm/s; sway area - cm2) Dynamic balance test: Tilt board (Short, medium, and long latency responses) | n/a | n/a | n/a | Balance in EO or EC conditions is significantly improved in MA group. |
Rahal et al., 2015 [58] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: geriatrician by anamnesis Conflict of Interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 76 Age: 73.55 yrs (60-80 yrs) 74% women Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Tai chi group LA group: Dance group | Measure: n/k MA group: up to 3 h tai chi per week LA group: up to 3 h dance per week | Direct measure Static balance test: Modified Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction on Balance (mCTSIB) (sway velocity - °/s) Unilateral stance (sway velocity - °/s) Dynamic balance test: Walk across test: (sway speed - cm/s; step width - cm; sway velocity - °/s) Sit to stand test: (sway velocity - - °/s; weight transfer - s) | n/a | n/a | n/a | MA group had reduced postural sway and thus improved static and dynamic balance. |
Tsang & Hui-Chan, 2004 [59] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: tai chi clubs Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding declared | N: 47 Age: 69.03 ± 6.37 yrs 0% women Height(m): 1.61 ± 6.45 Weight(kg): 62.65 ± 7.75 Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Tai chi group Tai chi experience: 8.4 yrs LA group: No exercise group | MLTPAQ MA group: Light =7 Mod. =4 Heavy = 1 PA - Up to 1.5 h p/w LA group: Light = 10 Mod. =2 Heavy =0 Walked/ stretching exercise daily | Direct measure Dynamic balance test Limits of stability test (reaction time (s); maximum excursion (%); directional control (%)) | MMSE (30 items) | Passive knee joint repositioning test (dynamometer); (absolute angle error - °) | n/a | MA group had better knee joint proprioception and greater limits of stability (dynamic balance). |
Tsang & Hui-Chan, 2005 [60] | Cross sectional 1 timepoint Convenience sampling: tai chi clubs and community centres Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding declared | N: 48 Age: 70.45 ± 5.55 yrs 50% women Height(m): 1.55 ± 0.07 Weight(kg): 58.1 ± 9.05 Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Tai chi LA group: No tai chi | MLTPAQ MA group: Light =17 Mod. =5 Heavy = 2 PA Up to 1.5 h per week LA group: Light =21 Mod. =3 Heavy =0 Walked/ stretching exercise daily | Indirect measure (S) Isokinetic knee strength test (dynamometer) (peak torque to body weight ratio) Direct measure Static balance test AP & ML body stability (body sway angle °) Dynamic balance test AP & ML body stability (body sway angle °) | ABC (16 items) | n/a | n/a | MA group showed better knee muscle strength, less body sway in static standing and perturbed single leg stance and greater balance confidence. |
Tsang & Hui-Chan, 2006 [61] | Cross sectional 1 timepoint Recruitment: tai chi clubs/ community centres Conflict of interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 48 Age: 70.45 ± 5.55 yrs 50% women Height(m): 1.55 ± 0.09 Weight(kg): 58.1 ± 17.5 Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: tai chi group Tai chi experience: mean 8.5 yrs LA group: No tai chi group | MLTPAQ MA group: Light =17 Mod. =5 Heavy =2 PA Up to 1.5 h per week LA group: Light =21 Mod. =3 Heavy =0 Walked/ stretching exercise daily | Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability pre-& post vestibular stimulation (eyes open/closed) (sway distance - cm) AP & ML stability pre-& post vestibular stimulation (eyes open/closed) (velocity -cm/s; amplitude°) | n/a | n/a | n/a | MA group have better control of body sway along AP direction. |
Tsang & Hui-Chan, 2010 [62] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: golf clubs/community centres Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding declared | N: 23 Age: 68.75 ± 6.7 yrs 0% women Height(m): 1.62 ± 6.95 Weight(kg): 64.05 ± 8.15 Community setting Written informed consent | Ma group: Golfers Golf experience: 15.2 yrs LA group: Non-golfers | MLTPAQ MA group: Light =6 Mod. =4 Heavy =1 PA Up to 1.5 h per week LA group: Light =10 Mod. =2 Heavy =0 Walked/ stretching exercise daily | Indirect measure (FU) Single leg stance (balance time -s) (FL) forward lunge test (average distance of lunge as % of height) Direct measure Dynamic balance test AP body stability (body sway angle °) | N/a | n/a | n/a | MA group achieved significantly longer stance duration during single-leg stance, better results on perturbed single leg stance, smaller sway, larger lunge distance onto both legs. |
Tsang et al., 2004 [66] | Cross sectional 1 timepoint Recruitment: centres for elderly Conflict of interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 60 Age: 53.33 ± 3.73 yrs 50% women Height(m): 1.57 ± 0.09 Weight(kg): 58.7 ± 9.7 Hong Kong, China Community setting Informed consent | MA group: Tai chi group Tai chi experience: 7.2 yrs LA group: No tai chi group | MLTPAQ MA group: Light =1 Mod. =15 Heavy =4 PA Up to 3 h per week LA group: Light =0 Mod. =15 Heavy = 5 Walked/or stretching exercise daily | Indirect measure (S) Handgrip test (dynamometer) (strength (Kg)) Direct measure Sensory Organisation Test (somatosensory, visual, vestibular ratios) | MMSE(mod.)(30 items) | n/a | n/a | MA group had better postural control under reduced or conflicting sensory conditions (increased reliance on vestibular and visual systems). |
Wayne et al., 2014 [49] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: N/k Conflict of interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 87 Age: 63.48 ± 7.63 yrs (50-79 yrs) 66% women White: 86% Non-Hispanic: 98% Education: 18 ± 3.3 yrs BMI(kg/m2) 25 ± 3.9 Boston, US Community setting | MA group: Tai chi expert LA group: Tai chi naïve | PASS MA group: 6.0 ± 2.0 (intensity/mins per week) LA group: 4.4 ± 2.2 (intensity/mins per week | Indirect measure (FU) Timed Up & Go (time to complete - s) (FU) Single leg stance (balance time - s) Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability (eyes open/close) (sway velocity (mm/s); sway area (mm2)) Dynamic balance test AP & ML stability (eyes open/closed) (sway velocity (mm/s) | MMSE (30 items) | n/a | n/a | Complexity based measures of sway, single leg stance and TUG are better for MA group. |
Wong et al., 2001 [67] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: tai chi clubs; volunteer group Conflict of interest: N/k Source of funding declared | N: 39 Age: 68.47 ± 5.53 yrs 69% women Weight(kg): 64.73 ± 8.03 Height(m): 1.57 ± 0.08 Taiwan Community setting Informed consent | MA group: tai chi LA group: no tai chi | MA group: tai chi Experience: 15.6 ± 10.5 yrs LA group: no tai chi | Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability (eyes open/closed) (max stability - %; sway velocity - °/s) Dynamic balance test Total body stability (eyes open/closed) (max stability - %; sway velocity - °/s) | n/a | n/a | n/a | MA group had better postural control than LA group. |
Wong et al., 2011 [68] | Cross sectional 1 time point Recruitment: local tai chi clubs Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding declared | N: 86 Age: 66.93 ± 5.63 yrs 62% women Weight(Kg): 58.65 ± 8 Height(m): 1.57 ± 0.07 Taiwan Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: tai chi LA group: no PA | MA group: 162mins per week LA group: no PA | Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability (eyes open/closed) (max stability - %; sway velocity - °/s; ankle strategy - %) Dynamic balance test Total body stability (eyes open/closed) (max stability - %; sway velocity - °/s; ankle strategy - %) | Reaction time (eye/hand) speed - ms) |  | n/a | MA group showed significantly greater maximal stability, smaller COP velocity, and greater use of ankle strategy, therefore overall better postural control. |
Zhang et al., 2011 [63] | Cross sectional 1 timepoint Recruitment: local tai chi/ walking groups Authors declare no conflict of interest Source of funding declared | N: 30 Age: 65.7 ± 4.9 yrs 100% women Community setting Written informed consent | MA group: Tai chi group LA group: Walking group | MA group: 7 h per week of tai chi 8.2 yrs tai chi experience LA group: 7 h per week of walking 8.8 yrs walking experience | Indirect measure - (FU) Single leg stance (time spent on one leg during walking (s)) - (G) Walking speed (preferred) (velocity (m/s) | n/a | n/a | n/a | MA group have better movement control but LA group have better results on single leg stance measures. |
RCT studies: | |||||||||
Paillard et al., 2004 [73] | RCT Baseline & post 12 weeks Randomised but not specified Conflict of interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 21 Age: 66.15 ± 2 yrs (63-72 yrs) 0% women Weight(kg): 74.8 ± 6.7 Height(m): 1.71 ± 0.05 Community setting Written informed consent | Intervention group: 3 months walking programme Control: no walking programme | Baseline measure: n/k MA group: up to 5 h of walking per week for 3 months LA group: up to 3 h per week no walking programme | Indirect measure (G) Walking speed (preferred) (velocity - m/min) Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability (eyes open/closed) (sway distance -- mm; sway area -mm2; speed variation; ratio - EO/EC*100) AP & ML stability (eyes open/closed) (distance - mm; sway area - mm2) Dynamic balance test ML stability (eyes open/closed) (position°; amplitude°; spectral energy- %) | n/a | n/a | n/a | 12 week walking programme can improve postural control whilst moving but not when static. |
Santos Mendeset al., 2011 [74] | RCT Baseline & post 4 months stratified by sex & randomised Conflict of interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 30 Age 68.7 ± 3.5 yrs 60% women Weight(kg): 66.9 Height(m): 1.69 Community setting | Intervention group: 4 months walking programme Control: no PA | MA group: 1 h per week for 4 months LA group: no PA | Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability (8 positions) (Static Balance Index) Dynamic balance test Total body stability (2 tests - hurdle obstacle; sit down and stand up from chair) (Dynamic Balance Index) | n/a | n/a | n/a | Walking is beneficial to both dynamic and static balance. |
Wayne et al., 2014 [49] | RCT 3 time points: Baseline, 3 months, 6 months Recruitment: N/k Conflict of interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 60 Age: 64.19 ± 7.72 yrs (50-79 yrs) 67% women White: 92% Non-Hispanic: 98% Education: 17 ± 3 yrs BMI(kg/m2): 26.5 ± 5.5 Boston, US Community setting | MA group; Tai chi expert 6 months tai chi LA group: Tai chi naïve | PASS MA group: 4.0 ± 2.0 (intensity/mins per week) LA group: 4.0 ± 2.0 (intensity/mins per week | Indirect measure (FU) Timed Up & Go (time to complete -s) (FU) Single leg stance (balance time - s) Direct measure Static balance test Total body stability (eyes open/close) (sway velocity - mm/s; sway area - mm2) Dynamic balance test AP & ML stability (eyes open/closed) (sway velocity - mm/s) | MMSE (30 items) | n/a | n/a | MA group had no significant short term effects from being more active based on traditional COP measures, but some increases in body sway in complexity COP measures (AP and ML eyes closed) correlated to practice hours. |
Yang et al., 2007 [75] | RCT Baseline, 2 month, 6 month Randomisation program for 4 locations Conflict of interest: N/k Source of funding: N/k | N: 49 Age: 80.55 ± 8.49 yrs (60-97 yrs) 80% women Retirement home (76%) | MA group: 2 months Tai chi LA group: no tai chi | Measure: n/k MA group: 3 h tai chi per week for 2 months LA group: usual activity 3.67 ± 2.38 h per week | Indirect measure (FU) Berg Balance (baseline only) Direct measure Sensory Organisation Test (somatosensory, visual & vestibular ratios) Base of support (area - cm2; feet opening angle °) | n/a | n/a | n/a | MA group have better SOT vestibular results and greater Base of Support measures but no differences for SOT visual ratios or feet opening angle between groups. |