Table 2 Characteristics of randomized controlled trials examining the effects of positive psychology interventions
From: Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies
Author | Intervention | Session (number), duration | Mean age (range or SD) | Delivery | Recruitment | Self-selection | Psychosocial problems / inclusion criteria | Control Group | N analyzed (post test) | Attrition rate, % (post test) | Outcome measures | Follow-up (min. 3 months) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abbott 2009 [78] | ResilienceOnline | 7, 10w | 43 | Self-help | Organization | Self-selected | None | Waiting list | Ne=26 Nc=27 | 41.5% | PWB: AHI DEP: DASS-21 | - |
Boehm 2011 [73] | Optimism and gratitude exercise | 6, 6w | 35.6 (11.4) | Self-help | Community | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=146 Nc=74 | ? | SWB: SWLS | - |
Buchanan 2010 [56] | Doing acts of kindness | 10, 10d | 26 (18–60) | Self-help | University | Self-selected | None | No intervention | Ne=28 Nc=28 | 0% (? nr) | SWB: SWLS | - |
Burton 2004 [64] | Writing about positive experiences | 3, 3d | College-based sample 18.6 (0.95) | Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=48 Nc=42 | 0% | SWB: PA | - |
Cheavens 2006 [76] | Hope therapy | 8, 8w | 49 (32–64) | Group | Community | Self-selected | Inclusion criteria unclear | Waiting list | Ne=17 Nc=15 | 12% 22% T: 18% | PWB: SHS DEP: CES-D | - |
Emmons 2006 study 1 [29] | Practising gratitude by counting one’s blessings | 10, 10w | U (students) | Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=65 Nc=67 | T: 4% | SWB: Life as a whole, upcoming week, PA | - |
Emmons 2006 study 3 [29] | Practising gratitude by counting one’s blessings | 21, 3w | 49 (22–77) | Self-help | Referral/hospital | Not self-selected | None | No intervention | Ne=33 Nc=32 | 0% (? nr) | SWB: Life as a whole, upcoming week, PA (self-report and observed) | - |
Fava 1998 [82] | Well-being therapy | 8, 16w | 28.4 (6.5) | Individual | Referral/hospital | Self-selected | Diagnosis of MDD or AD, succesful response to treatment | TAU | Ne=10 Nc=10 | 0% | PWB: RPWB DEP: CID, SQ subscale | - |
Fava 2005 [83] | Well-being therapy | 8, 16w | 41.9 (12) | Individual | Referral/hospital | Self-selected | Diagnosis of GAD | TAU | Ne=8 Nc=8 | 20% | PWB: RPWB DEP: CID, SQ subscale | 1 yr (not in study) |
Feldman 2012 [60] | Hopeful goal-directed thinking | 1, 1d | 18.7 (18–22) | Group | University | Not self-selected | None | No intervention | Ne=37 Nc=29 | 24.7% | PWB: GSHS, PIL |  |
Frieswijk 2005 [77] | Self-management positive bibliotherapy | 5, 10w | 72.9 (6.2) | Self-help | Community | Self-selected | Slightly or moderately frail (>=65 GFI) | Waiting list | Ne=79 Nc=86 | 18.4% 10.4% T: 14.5% | SWB: SPF-IL PWB: MS | 6 m |
Gander 2012 [74] | 9 exercises: gratitude visit three good things (1 and 2 weeks), strengths, three funny things, social exercises | 7, 1w 14, 2w | 44.9 (10.07) | Self-help | Internet, magazine | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=559 Nc=63 | 74% | PWB: AHI DEP: CES-D | 6 m |
Goldstein 2007 [84] | Cultivating sacred moments | 15, 3w | (22–44) | Self-help | Internet | Self-selected | None | TAU | Ne=35 Nc=38 | 14.6% 9.5% T: 12.0% | SWB: SWLS PWB: RPWB | - |
Grant 2009 [79] | Executive coaching | 6, 8-10w | 49.8 | Group and individual | Organization | Self-selected | None | Waiting list | Ne=21 Nc=20 | 18% | DEP: DASS-21 | - |
Grant 2012 [85] | Solution-focused coaching | 1, 1d | 20.5 (5.4) | Self-help | University | Self-selected | None | TAU | Ne=117 Nc=108 | 0% (? nr) | SWB: PA | - |
Green 2006 [33] | Life coaching and attainment of goals | 10, 10w | 42.7 (18–60) | Group | Community | Self-selected | None | Waiting list | Ne=25 Nc=25 | 10.7% 10.7% T: 10.7% | SWB: SWLS, PA PWB: RPWB, SHS | - |
Hurley 2012 [61] | Savoring the moment | 14, 2w | 19.5 (2.06) | Group / Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | No intervention | Ne=94 Nc=99 | 37.7% 39.6% T: 38.7% | SWB: PA DEP: BDI | - |
King 2001 [66] | Writing about best possible selves | 4, 4d | 21 (18–42) | Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=19 Nc=16 | 0% | SWB: PA | - |
Kremers 2006 [57] | Self-management positive group course | 6, 6w | 64.3 (7) | Group | Community | Self-selected | Single and lonely | No intervention | Ne=46 Nc=73 | 17.0% 7.6% T: 16.2% | SWB: SPF-IL | 6 m |
Layous 2012 [75] | Best possible selves exercise | 4, 4w | 19.1 (1.8) | Self-help Group | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=80 Nc=37 | ? | SWB: PA PWB: NS | - |
Lichter 1980 study 2 [80] | Rehearsal of positive statements | 14, 2w | U (students) | Individual | University | Not self-selected | None | Waiting list | Ne=25 Nc=23 | 0% (? nr) | SWB: AF1 DEP: BDI | - |
Luthans 2008 [65] | Online well-being program (PsyCap) | 2, 2w | 32.2 | Self-help | University | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=187 Nc=177 | 6.0% 4.8% T: 5.5% | PWB: PCQ | - |
Luthans 2010 study 1 [72] | PsyCap training | 1, 2 h | 21.1 (2.66) | Group | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=153 Nc=89) | 0% | PCQ | - |
Lyubomirsky 2006 study 2 [58] | Thinking about positive life experiences | 3, 3d | 19.5 (2.6) | Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | No intervention | Ne=26 Nc=36 | 0% | SWB: SWLS, PA | - |
Lyubomirsky 2011 [67] | Expressing optimism or gratitude | 8, 8w | 19.7 (18–46) | Self-help | University | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=218 Nc=101 | T: 10.1% | SWB: PLA, SWLS, SHS(2) | 6 m |
Martinez 2010 [68] | Practising gratitude by counting one’s blessings | 14, 2w | 20.7 (1.5) | Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=41 Nc=34 | 34.0% | SWB: PA, GA (self-report and observed) | - |
Mitchell 2009 [69] | Online intervention Use your strenghts in a new way | 3, 3w | 37 (18–62) | Self-help | Internet | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=48 Nc=54 | 64.6% 57.4% T: 60.8% | SWB: PWI-A, SWLS, PA PWB: OTH DEP: DASS-21 | 3 m |
Page 2012 [62] | Working for Wellness Program | 6, 6w | 39.7 (10.0) | Group | Organization | Self-selected | None | No intervention | Ne=13 Nc=10 | 58.1% 66.7% T: 62.3% | SWB: SWLS, PA PWB: SPWB | 6 month |
Peters 2010 [70] | Positive future thinking | 1, 1d | 29.7 (21–50) | Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=44 Nc=38 | 0% | SWB: PA | - |
Quoidbach 2009 [59] | Projecting a positive self in the future | 14, 2w | 32.5 | Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | No intervention | Ne=15 Nc=57 | T: 49.5% | SWB: SHS(2) | - |
Schueller 2012 [63] | Package of 2, 4 or 6 positive psychology exercises (active-constructive responding, gratitude visit, life summary, three good things, savoring, strengths) | 14, 2w 28, 4w 42, 6w | 42.4 (12.1) | Self-help | Internet | Self-selected | None | No intervention | Ne=457 Nc=204 | 54.7% 42.5% T: 55.4% | DEP: CES-D | - |
Seligman 2005 [30] | Strenghts excercises (2), gratitude (1), positive thinking (2) | 7, 1w | 64% between5-54 | Self-help | Internet | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=341 Nc=70 | T: 28.8% | PWB: SHI DEP: CES-D | 6 m |
Seligman 2006 study 1 [51] | Group positive psychotherapy | 6, 6w | U (students) | Group | University | Self-selected | Mild to moderate depressive symptoms (BDI 10–24) | No intervention | Ne=14 Nc=20 | 26.3% 4.8% T: 15.0% | SWB: SWLS DEP: BDI | 3, 6 (in study), 12 m |
Seligman 2006 study 2 [51] | Individual positive psychotherapy | 14, 12w | U (adults) | Individual | Referral/hospital | Self-selected | Clinical diagnosis of MDD | TAU | Ne=11 Nc=9 | 15.4% 40.0% T: 28.6% | SWB: SWLS PWB: PPTI DEP: HRSD, ZSRS | - |
Shapira 2010 [55]; Mongrain 2011 [53]; Sergeant 2011 [54]; Mongrain 2012 [52] | Three good things, signature strengths, self-compassion, optimism, compassionate action, gratitude intervention | 7, 1w | 34 (11.8) | Self-help | Internet | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=804 Nc=138 | 75% | PWB: SHI DEP: CES-D | 3 (in study), 6 m |
Sheldon 2002 [32] | Goal-training program | 2, 2w | U (students) | Group | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=36 Nc=42 | T: 13.3% | SWB: PA PWB: RPWB | - |
Sheldon 2006 [34] | Gratitude or visualizing positive self | 14, 2w | U (students) | Self-help | University | Not self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=44 Nc=24 | T: 6.0% | SWB: PA | - |
Spence 2007 [81] | Life coaching and attainment of goals | 10, 10w | 38.6 | Individual | Community | Self-selected | None | Waiting list | Ne=20 Nc=17 | 4.8%15.0% T: 9.8% | SWB: SWLS, PA PWB: RPWB | - |
Wing 2006 [71] | Positive writing | 3, 3d | 40.3 (18–79) | Self-help | Community | Self-selected | None | Placebo | Ne=58 Nc=55 | 6.3% | SWB: SWLS | - |