The relationships between harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment in childhood and intimate partner violence in adulthood

Table 4 Associations between harsh physical punishment in childhood and intimate partner violence in adulthood

	Perpetration only	Victimization only	Both perpetration and victimization
Harsh physical punishment	1.7 (1.4, 2.0)***	1.7 (1.4, 2.1)***	1.4 (1.1, 1.7)*
Sex	1.2 (1.0, 1.4)*	2.7 (2.1, 3.3)***	0.5 (0.4, 0.6)***
Age	1.0 (1.0, 1.0)***	1.0 (1.0, 1.0)***	1.0 (1.0, 1.0)***
Marital status
Widowed/divorced/separated	1.1 (0.9, 1.4)	0.7 (0.5, 0.9)*	2.7 (2.1, 3.6)***
Never Married	0.8 (0.7, 1.0)	0.7 (0.5, 1.0)*	1.3 (1.0, 1.7)
Race/Ethnicity
Black, Non, Hispanic	2.0 (1.7, 2.4)***	2.0 (1.6, 2.5)***	1.7 (1.3, 2.2)***
American Indian/Alaska Native	1.6 (1.0, 2.5)*	1.9 (1.1, 3.2)*	1.0 (0.5, 2.1)
Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander	1.1 (0.7, 2.0)	0.9 (0.5, 1.8)	1.1 (0.4, 2.9)
Hispanic	1.2 (0.9, 1.4)	1.2 (0.9, 1.6)	1.4 (1.0, 1.8)*
Education
High school or equivalent	0.9 (0.7, 1.1)	1.3 (0.9, 1.8)	1.2 (0.9, 1.7)
Some college or higher	0.7 (0.5, 0.9)**	0.9 (0.6, 1.2)	1.3 (0.9, 1.8)
Household income
$20,000–$39,999	0.9 (0.7, 1.1)	0.7 (0.6, 1.0)*	0.8 (0.6, 1.1)*
$40,000–$59,999	0.7 (0.6, 0.9)**	0.6 (0.4, 0.8)**	0.6 (0.4, 0.9)*
$60,000+	0.6 (0.5, 0.8)***	0.5 (0.4, 0.7)***	0.7 (0.5, 1.0)
Any family history of dysfunction	1.3 (1.1, 1.6)**	1.2 (0.9, 1.5)	1.8 (1.5, 2.2)***
Any child maltreatment	2.1 (1.7, 2.6)***	1.5 (1.2, 1.9)***	1.9 (1.5, 2.5)***

AOR. Adjusted for sex, age, marital status, race/ethnicity, education, and household income, any family history of dysfunction, and any childhood maltreatment. Sex reference group was males. Marital status reference group is married/co-habiting. Race/ethnicity reference group is White, non-Hispanic. Education reference group is less than high school. Household income reference group is $0–$19,999. Perpetration only, victimization only, and both perpetration and victimization are mutually exclusive groups. *p ≤ .05, **p ≤ .01, ***p ≤ .001

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