Table 1 Measures assessed on the PDA
Measure/Construct | Items |
|---|---|
Cognitive susceptibility to smoking [1] | 3 items assessed behavioral intentions and peer influence (administered to never-smokers only). To be coded as "non-susceptible" participants responded "no" to "Do you think you will try a cigarette soon?"; and "definitely not" to "If one of your best friends were to offer you a cigarette would you smoke it?" & "Do you think you will be smoking cigarettes 1 year from now?" |
Attitudes toward smoking | |
A 12-item measure of the pros and cons of smoking (Decisional Balance Scale). Six items assessed pros of smoking, e.g., "Kids who smoke have more friends" (Cronbach's alpha = 0.72). Six items assessed cons of smoking, e.g., "Smoking is bad for people's health" (Cronbach's alpha = 0.78). Responses were made on a five-point scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." | |
Temptations to try smoking [59] | Assessed 14 different situational temptations to try smoking, e.g. "With friends at a party", analyzed as one scale (Cronbach's alpha = 0.90). Responses were made on a five-point scale ranging from "not at all tempted" to "extremely tempted." |
Positive and negative outcome expectations [17] | Seven items assessed positive expectations, e.g. "I think smoking would make me look more mature." (Cronbach's alpha = 0.86) and five items assessed negative expectations, e.g., "I think smoking would give me bad breath" (Cronbach's alpha = 0.67). Responses were made on a four-point scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." |
Peer & family influence | |
Friends smoking behavior [60] | "How many of your three closest friends smoke?" (0, 1, 2, or 3) & "How many of your friends smoke?" Response options include "none," "a few," "some," "most," or "all." |
Householders smoking behavior | Assessed which householders the participant currently lives with are current smokers, e.g., "Does your father smoke?" |
Peer and family normative influence [61] | Assessed normative beliefs of family and peers, i.e., "How would your parents feel about your smoking cigarettes?" & "How would your close friends feel about your smoking cigarettes?" Responses were made on a four-point scale ranging from "strongly approve" to "strongly disapprove." |
School characteristics | |
Acceptability | "Do students smoke on your school campus?", "Do your friends think it is cool to smoke?", & "Do your friends think it is stupid to smoke?" |
Punishment | "What happens to students who smoke at school if they get caught?" Response options include "nothing," "disciplined," "suspended," & "parents are told." |
Education | "Have you ever had a class about the bad effects that smoking has on your health?" |
Activities | "Do you participate in school sports?" & "Do you participate in other school activities?" |
Grades & Detentions | "What type of grades do you get?" & "During this school year how many detentions and suspensions have you had?" |
Subjective social status [44] | Participants were asked to indicate on a 10-rung ladder where they think their position is relative to other children attending their school. |
Neighborhood characteristics | |
Neighborhood norms | "Do you think that your neighbors would say something to you if they saw you smoking?" & "Do you think your neighbors would say something to your parents if they saw you smoking?" |
Access | "If you try to buy cigarettes will you be asked to show an ID?" & "Is it easy for you to buy cigarettes in your neighborhood or near your school?" |
Pro- and/or anti-smoking messages | Participants were asked whether they have seen MORE pro-smoking messages, anti-smoking messages, or neither type on billboards, television, newspapers, etc., during the previous month. |