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Table 1 Risk factors for vitamin A deficiency in rural Guinea-Bissau

From: Determinants of vitamin a deficiency in children between 6 months and 2 years of age in Guinea-Bissau

Group/Variable

n (%)

VAD Prevalence (%)

Simple modelaPR for VAD (95% CI)

Simple model pc<

Large modelbPR for VAD (95% CI)

Large model pc<

VAD

      

 Yes

724 (66)

-

-

-

-

-

 No

378 (34)

-

-

 

-

 

Obligatory

      

Sex

      

 Male

555 (50)

67

reference

0.39

reference

0.09

 Female

547 (50)

64

0.96 (0.89-1.05)

 

0.93 (0.86-1.01)

 

Age

      

 Continuous (months)

1102 (100)

-

0.99 (0.98-1.00)

0.05

1.00 (0.99-1.01)

0.83

CRP

      

 ≤ 5 mg/L

756 (69)

60

reference

0.0001

reference

0.0001

 > 5 mg/L

346 (31)

78

1.29 (1.19-1.40)

 

1.27 (1.17-1.37)

 

Child factors

      

Weight for aged,e

      

 Continuous

1094 (99)

-

0.98 (0.95-1.02)

0.42

1.05 (0.99-1.11)

0.13

Arm circumference for aged,e

      

 Continuous

1101 (100)

-

0.95 (0.91-0.99)

0.02

0.95 (0.89-1.01)

0.09

Length for aged,e

      

 < −2

267 (24)

62

1.01 (0.89-1.16)

 

-

-

 ≥ −2, < −1

325 (30)

67

0.93 (0.81-1.06)

 

-

-

 ≥ −1, < 0

345 (31)

67

0.99 (0.87-1.13)

 

-

-

 ≥ 0

161 (15)

50

reference

0.50

-

-

Weight for lengthd,e

      

 Continuous

1090 (99)

-

0.99 (0.95-1.02)

0.49

-

-

Twinning status

      

 Singletons

1066 (97)

65

reference

0.001

reference

0.01

 Twins

36 (3)

86

1.31 (1.15-1.49)

 

1.30 (1.11-1.52)

 

Breast feedingd

      

 Yes

1080 (98)

66

reference

0.51

-

-

 Stopped

17 (2)

59

0.88 (0.61-1.27)

 

-

 

Took medicine on inclusion day

      

 No

975 (88)

65

reference

0.05f

-

-

 Yes

63 (6)

71

1.03 (0.88-1.22)

 

-

 

 No information

64 (6)

77

1.19 (1.03-1.37)

 

-

 

Cough at the day of inclusiond

      

 No

816 (74)

64

reference

0.03

reference

0.03

 Yes

283 (26)

72

1.11 (1.01-1.21)

 

1.10 (1.01-1.21)

 

Fever at the day of inclusiond

      

 No

758 (69)

64

reference

0.42

-

-

 Yes

341 (31)

69

1.04 (0.95-1.13)

 

-

 

Diarrhea at the day of inclusiond

      

 No

920 (83)

65

reference

0.36

-

-

 Yes

178 (16)

69

1.05 (0.94-1.17)

 

-

 

Maternal factors

      

Maternal ethnicityd

      

 Balanta

282 (26)

62

reference

0.0001

reference

0.001

 Fula

215 (20)

81

1.31 (1.18-1.46)

 

1.21 (1.03-1.42)

 

 Mandinga

123 (11)

61

0.98 (0.83-1.16)

 

0.88 (0.75-1.03)

 

 Pepel

235 (21)

61

0.95 (0.83-1.08)

 

1.38 (1.05-1.81)

 

 Otherg

234 (21)

62

1.00 (0.87-1.14)

 

0.95 (0.82-1.09)

 

Maternal educational level (years of school)d

      

 None

797 (72)

66

reference

0.50

-

-

 1-4

197 (18)

61

0.93 (0.83-1.05)

 

-

 

 > 4

101 (9)

67

1.01 (0.87-1.16)

 

-

 

Maternal age at child inclusion dated

      

 ≥ 14, ≤ 20

202 (18)

64

0.98 (0.87-1.10)

 

-

 

 > 20, ≤ 30

575 (52)

65

reference

0.74

-

-

 > 30, ≤ 40

260 (24)

68

1.04 (0.94-1.15)

 

-

 

 > 40, ≤ 55

43 (4)

61

0.96 (0.75-1.22)

 

-

 

Season

      

Season

      

 Dry

649 (59)

53

reference

0.0001

reference

0.0001

 Rainy

453 (49)

84

1.56 (1.44-1.70)

 

1.64 (1.49-1.81)

 

Geography

      

Region

      

 Bafata

121 (11)

55

1.02 (0.84-1.24)

 

1.41 (1.03-1.94)

 

 Biombo

287 (26)

56

reference

0.0001

reference

0.0001

 Bijagós/Bolama

63 (6)

76

1.41 (1.19-1.66)

 

2.46 (1.79-3.39)

 

 Cacheu

53 (5)

43

0.81 (0.59-1.12)

 

1.47 (0.98-2.19)

 

 Gabu

148 (13)

82

1.47 (1.30-1.67)

 

2.10 (1.53-2.87)

 

 Oio

89 (8)

91

1.62 (1.44-1.83)

 

1.96 (1.49-2.58)

 

 Quinara

133 (12)

68

1.22 (1.04-1.42)

 

1.98 (1.48-2.66)

 

 Sao Domingos

91 (8)

65

1.15 (0.96-1.38)

 

1.87 (1.38-2.53)

 

 Tombali

117 (11)

63

1.13 (0.96-1.33)

 

2.07 (1.51-2.83)

 

Village distance to vaccination facility (km)

      

 ≥ 0, < 0.5

440 (40)

69

reference

0.10

reference

0.19

 ≥ 0.5, < 2

167 (15)

60

0.88 (0.77-1.01)

 

1.09 (0.94-1.26)

 

 ≥ 2, < 5

200 (18)

61

0.88 (0.78-1.00)

 

1.07 (0.91-1.26)

 

 ≥ 5

295 (27)

67

0.98 (0.89-1.09)

 

1.17 (1.01-1.36)

 

Distance to sea (km)

      

 ≥ 0, < 5

25 9 (24)

63

reference

0.001

-

-

 ≥ 5, < 15

290 (26)

60

0.96 (0.85-1.10)

 

-

 

 ≥ 15, < 50

328 (30)

65

1.05 (0.93-1.19)

 

-

 

 ≥ 50, < 149

225 (20)

77

1.22 (1.09-1.37)

 

-

 

Distance to hospital (km)

      

 ≥ 0, < 10

206 (19)

65

reference

0.03

reference

0.04

 ≥ 10, < 20

363 (33)

72

1.09 (0.97-1.22)

 

1.06 (0.93-1.20)

 

 ≥ 20, < 30

319 (29)

61

0.94 (0.82-1.07)

 

0.93 (0.81-1.07)

 

 ≥ 30, < 70

214 (19)

63

0.96 (0.83-1.11)

 

0.86 (0.72-1.02)

 

Use of health services

      

Most recent vaccination typed,h

      

 Inactivated

667 (61)

67

reference

0.93

reference

0.06

 Live

141 (13)

64

0.96 (0.84-1.09)

 

0.84 (0.74-0.96)

 

 Mixed

156 (14)

66

1.00 (0.88-1.13)

 

1.01 (0.90-1.13)

 

 No vaccination

119 (11)

47

0.99 (0.86-1.14)

 

1.01 (0.88-1.17)

 

VAS received within 6 monthsd

      

 Received

589 (53)

63

reference

0.12

-

-

 Not received

500 (45)

68

1.07 (0.98-1.17)

 

-

 

Birth facility

      

 Home

629 (57)

65

reference

0.01

reference

0.02

 Health unit/center

80 (7)

58

0.89 (0.73-1.08)

 

0.98 (0.82-1.17)

 

 Hospital

126 (11)

77

1.20 (1.07-1.34)

 

1.16 (1.03-1.31)

 

 No information

267 (24)

64

1.00 (0.90-1.11)

 

1.13 (1.03-1.25)

 

Child use of bed netd

      

 Year around

773 (70)

67

reference

0.03

reference

0.03

 Rainy season

311 (28)

63

0.94 (0.85-1.04)

 

0.97 (0.87-1.09)

 

 None

8 (1)

88

1.38 (1.06-1.80)

 

1.48 (1.11-1.97)

 
  1. aPoisson regression adjusted for CRP > 5 mg/L, bPoisson regression adjusted for CRP > 5 mg/L, sex, age, weight for age, arm circumference for age, twinning status, cough on inclusion day, maternal major ethnic group, season, region, village distance to vaccination facility, distance to hospital, most recent vaccination type, birth facility, and child use of bed net. cWald test for overall equality of categories within variable. dNumbers do not add up to 1102 because records with missing information were discarded if they represent < 2%, ez-score in standard deviations from 1. fp=0.68 when children missing information was omitted, gGrouped from minor ethnicities. hVaccination status determined by the most recent vaccination type being either live (BCG, OPV, MV, and/or yellow fever vaccine), inactivated (DTP or Pentavalent vaccine) or Mixed (both a live and an inactivated vaccine). OPV is supposed to be given with DTP vaccines, but the last vaccine type was not considered as mixed if OPV was given with a DTP or Pentavalent vaccine as done in previous studies.
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