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Table 5 Study results for outcomes of loneliness, social isolation, structural social support and functional social support

From: Interventions targeting social isolation in older people: a systematic review

Study

N (n allocated to intervention, control)

Mean age (yrs)

Gender

(% female)

Intervention effect on loneliness/social isolation/structural social support/functional social support

RANDOMISED CONTROLLED TRIALS (n = 16):

Constantino [66]

150 (i1 = 50, i2 = 50, c = 50)

57.98 overall

100% (i1)

100% (i2)

100% (c)

Improved socialisation across 12 months. Most notable at 6 weeks but remained better than control at all time points.

Fukui et al [55]

50 (25, 25)

53.5 overall

52.6 (i)

54.3 (c)

Not reported

At six week and six months, reduced loneliness and increased number of confidants. Improved satisfaction with confidants and mutual aid at both time points.

Harris & Bodden [67]

102 (i = 26, c1 = 26)

76.6 overall

Not reported (i)

Not reported (c)

Not reported

Increased social interaction at six weeks.

Kremers et al [68]

142 (63, 79)

Overall NR

62.8 (i)

65.2 (c)

100%

No effect on overall or emotional loneliness at six weeks and six months. Reduced social loneliness at six weeks, but effect disappeared at six months.

Lokk [69]

65 (33, 32)

Overall NR

76 (new i), 78 (chronic i)

74 (new i), 71 (chronic i)

Overall NR

52% (new i), 50% (chronic i)

42 (new i), 63 (chronic i)

Increased social network size at six weeks, but effect disappeared by 12 weeks. Increased availability of company evident at 24 weeks.

Ollonqvist et al [70]

741 (376, 365)

78 overall

78.1 (i)

78.6 (c)

86% overall

84.6 (i)

87.1 (c)

No effect on loneliness or number of friends and relatives at 12 months.

Routasalo et al [13]

235 (117, 118)

Overall NR

80 (i)

80 (c)

Overall NR

74.4 (i)

72.9 (c)

Developed more new friendships at 12 months.

Savelkoul & de Witte [56]

168 overall (i = 56, c1 = 56, c2 = 56)

Overall NR

52.5 (i)

51.5 (c1)

50.5 (c2)

Overall NR

76.8% (i)

58.9% (c1)

77.9% (c2)

No effect on loneliness at post-intervention or six months.

White et al, 2002 [64]

100 (51, 49)

Overall NR

71 (i)

72 (c)

Overall NR

71 (i)

82 (c)

No effect on loneliness or number of confidants at five months.

Brennan et al [51]

102 (51, 51)

64 overall

67% overall

No effect on social isolation at 12 months.

Heller et al [58]

291 (238 - not split by grp, 53)

74 overalla

100% overall

None of the intervention groups reported an effect on loneliness or perceived level of support from friends and family members at 20 or 30 weeks.

MacIntyre et al [71]

26 (15, 11)

79.4 overall

79.7 (i)

79.0 (c)

68% overall

58% (i)

80% (c)

Increased social integration at six weeks, but no effect on perceptions of intimacy, nurturance and guidance.

O'Loughlin et al [57]

74 (39, 35)

42 overall

42.6 (i)

41.2 (c)

Overall NR

46.2 (i)

57.1 (c)

No effect on recent social and leisure activities, or satisfaction with social relationships at either three or six months.

Schulz [59]

40 (i1 = 10, i2 = 10, c1 = 10, c2 = 10)

81.5 overall

85.0 (i1)

79.8 (i2)

83.4 (c1)

77.9 (c2)

90% overall

At two months, increased social activity, amount of time spent in active pursuits and number of activities planned. Intervention effects were only significant when comparing both intervention groups against both control groups.

Slegers et al [72]

236 (i = 62, c1 = 45, c2 = 68, c3 = 61)

Not reported

Not reported

No effect on loneliness or social network size at either four or 12 months compared with all three control groups.

Drentea et al [52]

183 (94, 89)a

71.6 overall

72.6 (i)

70.5 (c)

61.8% overall

57.5% (i)

66.3% (c)

Increased satisfaction with social support over a five year period.

Q UASI-EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES (n = 16):

Arnetz & Theorell [60]

60 (30, 30)

Overall NR

77.6 yrs (i)

78.8 yrs (c)

Overall NR

66.7% (i)

66.7% (c)

Increased participation in activities arranged by the bureau or occupational therapy at six months, but no effect on activities arranged by the church.

Baumgarten et al [61]

95 (51, 44)a

Overall NR

56.8% ≥75 yrs (i)

54.6% ≥75 yrs (c)

Overall NR

74.5% (i)

70.5% (c)

No effect on number of social ties or satisfaction with social support at 16 weeks.

Evans & Jaureguy [73]

84 (42, 42)

61.7 overall

Not reported

Reduced loneliness and increased number of social activities at eight weeks.

Fujiwara et al [74]

141 (67, 74)

Overall NR

68.2 (i)

68.7 (c)

Overall NR

77.6 (i)

68.9% (c)

At nine months, increased contact with grandchildren and children contacted via voluntary activity, and increased numbers of distant friends. Reduced support received from friends/neighbours, but increased support given to friends/neighbours. Increased number of children contacted via voluntary activity remained at 21 months.

Martina & Stevens [75]

115 (60, 55)

63.0 overall

63.2 (i)

63.1 (c)

100% overall

Six month post-intervention, more new friendships formed and improved positive and negative affect, but no effect on loneliness.

Rosen & Rosen [76]

121 (i = 68, c1 = 31, c2 = 22)

70 overall

81% overall

Increased number of new/old activities enjoyed, but no effect on social isolation or number of social events attended at 12-15 months.

Stevens & van Tilburg [77]

64 (32, 32)

Overall NR

63.4 (i)

69.8 (c)

100% overall

Trend towards reduced loneliness at one year (p = 0.054).

Toseland et al [53]

175 (i1 = 67, i2 = 51, c = 36)

Overall NR

51.7 (i1)

50.5 (i2)

50.5 (c)

100% overall

Increased support network size for support group participants at eight weeks, compared with individual counselling participants and controls. No effect on extent of support.

White et al 1999 [62]

27 (19, 8)

Overall NR

77 (i)

80 (c)

Overall NR

84 (i)

75 (c)

No effect on loneliness or social support at five months.

Winningham & Pike [63]

73 (i & c not reported)

82.1 overall

Not reported

No effect on loneliness at three months, though it maintained participants perception of their social support compared to a deterioration in the control group

Bogat & Jason [78]

35 (i1 = 12, i2 = 11, c = 12)a

Not reported

Not reported

At three months, both intervention groups reported increased desired network size but no effect on current network size, number of telephone calls or visits per week.

Fokkema & Knipscheer [79]

29 (15, 14)

Overall NR

66 (i)

68 (c)

Overall NR

92% (i)

50% (c)

At three years, reduced overall loneliness but no effect on social or emotional loneliness.

Mulligan & Bennett [80]

23 (i & c not reported)

77 overall

75 (i)

80 (c)

91% overall

Unable to assess intervention effect as only within-group analysis conducted.

Rook & Sorkin [81]

180 (i = 52, c1 = 69, c2 = 59)

70.5 overall

69.6 (i)

68.9 (c1)

73.2 (c2)

65.6 overall

67.3 (i)

69.6 (c1)

59.3 (c2)

No effect on loneliness or the number of people depending on participants, at one and two years compared with both control groups. Increased number of new relationships formed at one and two years, and increased number of new social ties at two years compared with both control groups.

Toseland & Smith [54]

99 (59 - not split by i1 & i2, 40)

Overall NR

50.4 (i1)

50.0 (i2)

50.5 (c)

100% overall

Neither peer nor professional counselling groups reported any effect on network size, change in support network or satisfaction with support network at eight weeks.

Bergman-Evans [65]

35 (21, 13)a

Overall NR

76.1 (i)

83.1 (c)

Overall NR

38.1% (i)

84.6% (c)

No effect on loneliness at one year.

  1. a. Number in main analysis